Nature

Causality or confounding? Applying E values to examine associations between ultra-processed food consumption and risk of weight gain

Ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption is associated prospectively with weight gain and obesity in observational studies of adults. Unaccounted for confounding is a risk when attempting to make causal ...
Nature

Using negative controls to adjust for unmeasured confounding bias in time series studies

Confounding bias occurs when the effect of the exposure of interest is misattributed, or confounded, by other extraneous factors, called confounders, which are correlated with both the exposure and ...